FMP Research and Inspiration: Summarised Notes

/ dylanwhitehall

Secondary Sources:

Lessons From the Screenplay and The Last of Us

Film vs Video Games

Storytelling in video games and films share a lot of similarities but the main thing that sets the former apart from other media is that: in a video game, you aren’t just watching the story unfold, you’re participating in it. Films and video games can make use of the same cinematic shots and plotting structure, but the fact that a game is an interactive space makes it a completely different beast. 

This distinction can be summed up in one simple phrase: Passivity vs Agency.

To borrow from What Games Are [no date] “Agency is the degree to which a player is able to cause significant change in a game world. Low agency games involve either no interactivity, nudging or busywork. High agency games allow the player to significantly change the world or the state of objects within the world with every action.” 

Quote: What Games Are [no date] Agency. Available at: https://www.whatgamesare.com/agency.html#:~:text=Agency%20is%20the%20degree%20to,the%20world%20with%20every%20action. (Accessed 30 April 2022)

From a storytelling perspective, this means developing empathy through control and getting players to connect with characters on a subconscious level. You want them to think: “I am this character.” Giving players this control can change how they play a particular game as well as altering their view of the virtual world they are inhabiting. 

For example, Druckmann talks about the opening of The Last of Us (2013) and how they shifted the perspective from Joel (the game’s main protagonist) to his daughter, Sarah. Instead of playing as Joel and saving Sarah, you play as her and are defenceless to the events occurring around her since she is only a child. This ultimately creates for a more terrifying and tense experience for the player. 

Even when the perspective shifts back to Joel after Sarah is injured,  that tension remains. The player can’t protect themselves because they have to carry Sarah, their only option being to run through horror around them and the characters. 

Character Backstory

Characters have their own needs, goals, loves etc. When you are playing a game you are no longer you, you are instead tapping into a character where their de sires – in a manner of speaking – suddenly become yours. Which is why fleshed character motivations and backstory are important, without them there is no hook of intrigue to keep players invested. 

Joel’s backstory has a “ghost,” for example. A traumatic event that makes him afraid of change. 

Environmental Storytelling

What a player sees and hears in a virtual environment can clue them into how that world operates. Early on in The Last of Us Joel and the player are guided through a city by Tess (another supporting character) where they witness a number of violent scenes involving that area’s military force. Hassling civilians, maintaining strict borders and in one scene executing people in the street. It goes a long way in organically introducing these dystopian elements of the world to the player. 

Video game scripts can vary wildly depending on the particular needs of that game. The Last of Us is a linear game (a game that guides players along a set path) so environmentals details such as the ones listed above could be added as if you were describing a scene in a film script. In fact, Druckmann talks about how most of The Last of Us was compiled into a traditional format, with dialogue also adopting the structure of a film script and gameplay segments summarised as prose. 

Gameplay Mechanics

A video game’s narrative is used to teach players its gameplay mechanics. When developing a game these mechanics take priority and are locked down before anything else – such as the narrative – can be properly explored. The beginning of a game’s story usually comes last. 

Below are some examples from The Last of Us:

  • A sequence near the beginning of the game sees Joel running away from an explosion. This teaches players how to run and the mechanics behind healing
  • Another instance sees Joel and Tess on one of their routine runs where the player learns how to craft after they come across a workstation. 
  • In an infected area, Joel and Tess find an injured survivor who has breathed in some spores (one type of transmission for the game’s zombie-like virus). He asks Joel to shoot him, leaving the player with the grim decision to do so or not. It’s a dark but natural way of teaching the player how to shoot that manages to pack some emotional weight behind it. 

Cinematics

Cinematics are, as mentioned previously, an aspect of video games where they most overlap with other media formats – and they’re just as important. In video games, cinematics – or  cutscenes – are used for significant turns where the story slows down and focuses on a character’s face. These cutscenes can also be used to establish important plot beats that aren’t necessarily interesting gameplay wise. 

Setting up Joel and Ellie’s (the other main protagonist of The Last of Us) shaky relationship is the “inciting incident” (an event that sets the character on their main journey) of the game and had to be shown in a cinematic to convey the emotion of that scene. Everything is depending on the player’s connection to the characters and it can be hard to do that without properly showing these struggles. 

How do you make a player feel a relationship?

Ellie, an NPC (non-playable character), is constantly helping the player overcome obstacles and lend aid in combat. Her actions in gameplay slowly build a connection with not only Joel, but the player as well.  

Her demeanour and dialogue can also change depending on the situation, establishing emotion through behaviour and not just cinematic shots. This fleshes out her character’s personality and makes her feel more real and organic in the context of the game’s virtual world – making her far easier to care about. 

All the Pieces Coming Together

After a traumatic event later in the story that heavily affects Ellie’s character, the game cuts to a few months later where the player sees that her behaviour has completely changed. She is no longer energetic and talkative, instead she has become reserved and quiet. 

This change is also applied to the gameplay. Interactive options that once initiated dialogue, for example, no longer work as well as they did before. It subverts expectations by altering a mechanic the player has become familiar with over the course of the game. 

During this portion of the game, there is an instance where Ellie suddenly runs off. Empathy through control is kicked in again as the player – like Joel – wants to make sure she’s okay. Once the player finally catches up with her, they realise that the reason she ran off is because she found a giraffe that had escaped from a nearby zoo. The “child” in Ellie comes out again as her hope and her smiles return. It is arguably the happiest part of the game and brings both characters one step closer to completing their arcs but also acts as a set up game’s final and darkest sequence. 

When it comes to crafting a video game narrative there is one main goal above all else. To entertain the player. To make them feel emotionally connected to the characters and at the end of it all, leave them walking away thoughtful about the experience. 

Extra Credits – The Three Pillars of Video Game Writing

Writing for video games is the process of creating a narrative design that encapsulates many different things – such as character or level design. Most games however, usually focus on one particular area to create a more successful experience.The three main umbrellas being: plot, character and lore. Games that don’t succeed in either one of these areas or messily mix them together are likely to fail, which is why one or two of them are prioritised when it comes to crafting a narrative. 

Plot

Plot is the actual storyline of the game and is what you are left with if you strip away everything else. A game that is focused on plot needs to be original, have a twist or have something to say. It won’t necessarily deliver complex characters with motivated arcs, rather it is a story with many shifting parts  where – to put it in layman’s terms – a lot is going to happen. A plot driven video game is more comparable to fantasy epics like Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (2002), only the big set pieces – like The Battle of Helm’s Deep – would be incorporated into the gameplay mechanics. 

Character

This area focuses on characters and their personalities, taking the time to slow down and express their goals and struggles. As Druckmann mentioned in the previous video, a player’s connection to the character is an integral part of keeping them interested in the game’s story and is strengthened through control and dialogue. Focusing on character development can sometimes come at the expense of the plot as – unless they are deeply ingrained into it – a character’s emotional revelations may not move the plot along. 

A player’s first impressions when it comes to video games often comes from the visuals. This means character is almost as important as character personality when it comes to development but unfortunately, due to the type of game we are making, is not something we achieve to the normal standards. 

Lore

Lore is worldbuilding. It’s what makes these virtual environments feel alive. Giving the locations a player may visit a fleshed history, sprinkling readable books and documents with references to past events or giving descriptions to the many items a player will come across over their playthrough are effective – if somewhat, overlooked – techniques in making a world feel like it existed before you experienced it. 

Dark Souls (2011) is an excellent example of world building done right. The game’s story is not delivered unconventionally. Rather than padding out the gameplay with character driven cinematics, the player learns about the world through the fantastical environments, obscure NPC dialogue and – as mentioned above – detailed item descriptions. 

The Focus of My Game

Gravenhold, as detailed in my pitch proposal (link), is a visual-novel/RPG that will delve into the personal struggles of my protagonist’s while they traverse a dark fantasy world. Though the narrative features elements of all three of these areas, the focus is primarily on character. The plot, while it may take these characters to a variety of locations, is a rather simple one as I instead intend on zooming the narrative in on a number of character driven scenes. Lore is something I will try to broach more as, while I am by no means trying to establish a fully realised fantasy world on my first attempt at something like this, I still want to try and add a layer of intrigue to the story when I can; which will hopefully set up future stories that I may tell in the story’s setting. 

GDC – Tools to Boost Your Narrative

The Flow Channel

High skill/low challenge and low challenge/high skill games create an experience for players that is either too boring or too challenging. The same applies to a game that goes on for too long without enough tension or one that overwhelms players in its first hour. In order for developers to deliver an experience that is fair and engaging they are constantly playing a balancing act to find the midpoint of these elements – this is called the flow channel.

This sweet spot, however, is not as straightforward as it may seem. Within the flow channel there are still high and lows, obstacles that players will have to face and the sense of achievement that comes from doing so. In order to create this sort of wobbly line, developers will utilise different aspects of the narrative: 

  • The Black Moment: this is the darkest moment of the story. The lowest of the lows where the characters have been thoroughly beaten, this is an event that hangs over the protagonist and the player – motivating them to push on to the end. It best, usually, to complete your ending as quickly as possible after the black moment so that your story can maintain its momentum. 
  • Pre-authored Content:  These are mechanics, events and pre written stories put into the game for the player to interact with. The main purpose of these features is to complement the. . .
  • User Generated Story: This is simply the player’s interaction with the virtual world. Using pre-authored content they will naturally find accomplishment through their own story. 

Even with the inclusion of the list above, developers still need to find ways to motivate players through their game. This can be done in two different ways:

  • External Motivation: This is a motivation to change something in the world around you. Like getting rich, for example
  • Internal Motivation: This is the desire to change something inside a person – to get over an emotional block. In a game’s narrative, this can translate into wanting to see the completion of a character’s story arc. 

Kicking Off the Plot

The plot of a game controls the speed of progress the player will make and the overall tension arc. Starting with your game’s biggest events and revelations only to then slow then for the next couple of hours skewers the flow of its story and spoils the experience. 

A game’s plot should instead start by setting up the main character and the situation they’re in. Establishing empathy and motivations is, once again, key to any story – no matter the medium. The start of the game should also consist of an introduction to rules behind both the setting and the gameplay mechanics through a tutorial mission. 

From here the player should encounter the inciting incident wherein the protagonist(s) eventually face a problem they have been trying to avoid. This allows the introduction of more complex gameplay mechanics and story beats. 

Change

Video game narratives follow a lot of the same rules that have already been established in storytelling for centuries. One such being the need for change. In order to create a compelling story with interesting characters some sort of change usually has to have occurred.There are two types of change that primarily apply to the player and the characters they control:

  • External Change: the player finds new strategies to overcome the changes that have occurred in the game’s story and gameplay design. 
  • Internal Change: when a character finds the strength they never knew they had, or a player overcomes an obstacle they thought impossible. 

The Essentials

At the end of the day, some of the things that should be present a game’s narrative are:

  • An objective (goal or experience)
  • Conflict (something that makes that objective difficult to achieve)
  • An outcome that is reached after change finally occurs

With proper use of the flow channel and clearly laid out objectives and outcomes, a player can still succeed in a game when the character they’re playing fails. Meaning, in the low points of the narrative, players are still motivated to see a game to its end. 

Video Game Flowcharts

Though my responsibilities for this production primarily consist of writing its story, I also have to create a number of flowcharts that map out what order certain functions and lines of dialogue should appear in.  During my time studying computer science I learned about flowcharts and their function when it comes to developing code. However, as a couple of years have passed since then, I felt that I needed a refresher. So, using D3kryption’s YouTube video on Game Design Techniques: Flowcharts, I noted down the basics required for my diagrams. 

Since I am not writing the actual code for our game and instead only mapping out story and script to accommodate its functions, the flowcharts I will be creating don’t need to be as complex as one developers typically use when designing their programs. This has, overall, helped with time and stress when it comes to creating these diagrams alongside my script. 

Other Videos

The two videos above are ones that I didn’t necessarily take a lot of notes from, but were still a part of my initial research. I found both interesting, as it was more media featuring perspectives from different game developers, while the latter also gave me an opportunity to consider just how many different ways there are for me to approach dialogue when it comes to writing my game’s script. 

This final video differs greatly from the rest as it comes from Matthew Mercer, a game master for a Dungeons and Dragons 5e (2014- present) podcast called Critical role (2015- present). Dungeons and Dragons is a tabletop role playing game which features a different type of game design. While it’s a different beast than video game writing, I still sought out content like this to see what sort of similarities the mediums shared and if there was anything useful to be gleaned. Though the series ultimately wasn’t very relevant to my project, I still thought it would be important to include here as some pointed mentions crossed over with video game design – establishing a hook, fleshing out characters and making a connection – and because it was, again, a part of my initial research. 

Primary Sources:

Rob Yescombe

During Jam week I wasn’t able to attend every session that was held due to some scheduling issues. Fortunately however, I was able to go back and watch some of the recordings made during these talks – allowing me to gather some insight from video game writer, Rob Yescombe. Yescombe has worked on a variety of games throughout his career, from indie titles (independent games made by small development teams with little financial backing) like Rime (2017) to bigger AAA (games produced and distributed by large publishers) games such as The Division (2016). More recently his focus in the industry has shifted towards virtual reality technology as he believes it is the future of modern video games. The most notable VR title he has worked on is The Invisible Hours (2017), which was nominated for both the GoldSpirit Awards and the Jerry Goldsmith Awards for best original video game score. 

After his introduction Yescombe went on to discuss an aspect of a game’s narrative that I have already come to realise is key: Empathy. Yescombe highlighted the importance of a player’s connection to a game and its characters, noting that it is the writer’s responsibility to create that bound through the use of emotion and empathy. 

He also went on to state that another main role of the writer is to “Explain the fun.” When creating a video game its base concept and its gameplay mechanics are often what comes first during its development cycle. By simply playing a game, you are absorbing the tools you need so in that regard the story doesn’t always take priority during the early stages.  Nevertheless, once the base features are established, writers are brought to weave a narrative into them – giving them context and reason for existing. As Yescombe said “Fun needs connection to the human experience.” 

With video games, writers aren’t necessarily creating their own story as they would with a book. Instead, Yescombe stressed that it’s a collaborative effort where you never know who you’re going to end up working with. On the subject of collaboration, Yescombe also mentioned a bit about his background and how he got into the industry. Before being hired by any video game studio he did PR work for an indian music show, showing how opportunity can come in many different forms.

In general, he also gave some advice for starting a writing career: 

  • “Your success is on you. Get your work out there.”
  • “You can’t stop or you’ll sink.”
  • Consume a lot of non-fiction as to prepare yourself for any sort of requirements that may come with a writing role.

The rest of my notes on Jam Week can be found here: https://witchersandwitches.wordpress.com/2022/04/20/jam-week-07-03-22/

Disco Elysium

Disco Elysium (2019) is one of the games I mentioned in my project proposal which has acted as a form of inspiration for my work. It is a visual-novel/RPG (role playing game) where you play as Harrier “Harry” Du Bois, a washed up cop from the fictional city of Revechol who is tasked with investigating a supposed lynching while also struggling with a nasty case of amnesia.  

As a part of my research, I went back and replayed the first hour of the game – noting down features that most stood out to me:

  • Dialogue: Disco Elysium features a thoughtfully written and incredibly detailed dialogue system which allows players to approach situations from a number of different ways. There are three different voices in the writing: the narrator’s, yours and the characters’ you are talking to at any given moment. While a lot of RPGs give you multiple dialogue options, allowing you – for example – to be polite or crude, not many do it quite like this game. Consistently picking a particular type of response in dialogue or completing certain actions will eventually push your character towards “thoughts” from a feature called “The Thought Cabinet.” These thoughts, if pursued, can alter your character stats and open up new dialogue options. One example that can be achieved early on is the “Rigorous Self-Critique thought,” after picking dialogue options from the “Sorry Cop,” archetype – turning you into an overly apologetic and self-critiquing mess. This is a system I was greatly interested in and wanted to explore ways to integrate into my own script. However, after a call with my programming friend, I realised it was probably too complex for our baseline and was instead added to a stretch goal for the future. The base idea of having dialogue options that represent different moods does still remain and so far in my script have fallen under three main archetypes: Aggressive/crude, positive/kind and neutral. 
  • The Narrator: As mentioned in my previous point, the game also includes a narrator. This extra voice in the dialogue adds a layer of depth as it will often dig into the thoughts your character is leaning towards, creating for a more unique and personal experience. While I have already stated that I will not be attempting to create anything close to the scope of this feature, I will be trying to delve in my protagonist’s inner monologue often due to the first person perspective I have chosen to write in.
  • The Map: Disco Elysium is all just dialogue. A large portion of the game will see the player controlling Harry on a detailed map of the game’s setting, allowing them to pick where they want to go at their own pace. The freedom to pick which areas you want to go to is something we wanted to replicate for our game (only a static map with selectable icons instead) but again, was a bit too ambitious for the time frame we are working in. For now the script grants players a limited amount of freedom that we hope to change in the future. 
  • Dialogue History: During the many conversations the player will have with different characters in the game, they are able to scroll back through the dialogue to read what has been said. In a game with a lot of text and information constantly being thrown at you I found this to be immensely helpful during my playthrough. Naturally then, I want to find a way to adapt this into our project though not just because of its utility but also how organically it would blend with the UI (user interface). As I described in my project proposal, players will be looking through the eyes of one of three characters while they are writing in a book – recounting the events of the story. Being able to flick back through the pages to read what has already occured, like a book, feels like a vital mechanic for our game. 

There were a few more features and design techniques on display in Disco Elysium that I enjoyed interacting with but, much like”The Thought Cabinet,” would be too great of an undertaking for our two person team. One such being the percentage/dice chance system when players attempt to do certain actions, much like the table-top RPG Dungeons and Dragons (5e) (2014- present). As fun as this would be to adapt it into our game, it would needlessly add to the complexity of the work behind the project. For now it is just another option we may consider if we ever return to work on this game.  

Thronebreaker: The Witcher Tales

Thronebreaker: The Witcher Tales (2018) has been another source of inspiration during my research for this project. It is a deck building card game with RPG elements set in the Witcher universe. Like Disco Elysium it allows players to participate in conversation with its various NPC and make a number of story altering designs. However, due to the game’s heavier focus on gameplay through its card based mechanics, these dialogue options are not as complex. 

Though that doesn’t mean it isn’t compelling. In fact, Thronebreaker’s approach to these storytelling elements is a style I am borrowing from more than Disco Elysium. Its story and its dialogue options are more restricted, but pulled off in such a way that it doesn’t compromise the player’s agency. On multiple playthroughs the same conversation can still have different and equally interesting outcomes – improving its replayability. 

Various, harder and far more consequential decisions the player can make are spread throughout its runtime as well. So while the dialogue options may not be as open ended as other RPGs, the player can still have made a significant impact on the virtual world by the time the credits rolled. 

I also noticed that Thronebreaker’s big dilemmas that it will present before the player are heavily character focused. Some will determine character allegiances while others will determine character deaths. After spending so much time with said characters it gives these decisions a hefty amount of emotional weight.

Thronebreaker often takes pauses in between its gameplay to describe situations and environments to the player through screens similar to old text based adventure games. If the player is travelling through a suspicious forest the game will provide a description of the area and then present choices on how to navigate it. These options, I feel, added to the immersion of the game are another feature I plan to adapt into my script. But what also piqued my interest about these parts of the game were the illustrations they would include to complement the text. It added some diversity to these screens and helped break up the longer portions of text in an effective way. While my game is definitely not targeted at people who don’t like to read and I won’t be attempting to make it anymore appealing to them,  I think that by including my own illustrations into the game – like how Thronebreaker does – would be embrace the medium more without distraction from the rest of the script. 

Inscryption

Inscryption (2021) was another object of my research in preparation for this project, though for different reasons than the games already mentioned. Inscryption is another deck building card game, though one that leans in the horror genre rather than fantasy. In it you play as a prisoner to a mysterious figure called Leshy who forces you to play his card game in exchange for your life.

Inscryption presents its horror subtly rather than overwhelming you with jumpscares and monsters. Some of the cards speak you, claiming to be people who Leshy has trapped; while you are playing, noiseless animations – like a spider crawling past your cards – will occur in the corner of eye; your cards, which you know possess an eerie sentience, can be sacrificed in exchange for bones, a resource in this game; discarded teeth act as the life points for Leshy’s games. And looming over all of that is a creepy soundtrack and the knowledge that your opponent will kill you if you fail. 

Inscryption’s style of horror isn’t necessarily something that has influenced my story but has instead inspired the game’s overall look. Its small, dimly lit environment and, almost, low poly visuals is an aesthetic we want to adapt into our own style. The premise of our game sees players trapped in a dark room while they are actively writing and editing the events of our story, including animations and visual elements like the ones listed above will be a way for us to make the virtual environment more interesting and unsettling. 

Coffee Talk

While conducting my research for this project I began to have my doubts about my game concept. Since the focus is on story with very few gameplay mechanics to complement it, I suddenly thought that it might have been best for me to work with a different medium. In hindsight this was likely a doubt spawned from the anxieties that come with starting a new project and getting your ideas out there – for me at least – as I am fully aware of the retro text based adventure games and countless visual novels that are beloved by many today. Still, that worry was there and still sometimes pops back up – hindering the progress of my work sometimes. 

That is why Coffee Talk (2020)  was a much needed breath of fresh air for me. This game acted less like an object of my research for me to pick apart like the others and instead a source of reassurance. In Coffee Talk you play as a barista in a modern-fantasy world,  who owns a coffee shop which only opens late at night and during the early hours of the morning. Besides a coffee making minigame, there are no other gameplay mechanics of coffee talk. Instead it relies on its beautiful visuals and heart-to-heart dialogue between the cast of characters who visit the shop. 

As the player you don’t get to alter these conversations much, like the other games I have looked into, instead you are simply there to enjoy the ride. Althought it differed wildly from our target genre, seeing a game that could rely on its story like this was massively encouraging and a good opportunity for me to consume some well written, uninterrupted dialogue that would when the time came for me to write my own. 

Continued Research:

Even after completing this research and gathering notes on my inspirations, I am still occasionally taking breaks from my script writing to consume more media that may aid in the development of my project: 

Books

  • I briefly mentioned in my project proposal how books such as Dracula (1897) have influenced some of my ideas for my FMP. I have been looking at this, not necessarily for its overarching themes of power and perversion, but rather the structure in which it is told as my story is also told in journal entries. Specifically, I have looked at the first four chapters (p.7-48 in the Scholastic edn) where the reader is given extracts from Jonathan Harker’s journal. My more indepth research and breakdown of books like Dracula and the gothic/horror genre as a whole can be found here: https://witchersandwitches.wordpress.com/2021/09/25/genre-and-gothic-literature/ https://witchersandwitches.wordpress.com/2021/10/03/an-exploration-of-horror-and-dark-fantasy/
  • Resident Evil 7: Biohazard Document File (2020) is a book containing detailed notes on the development of the horror video game,Resident Evil 7: Biohazard (2017), which I have recently started reading. The information inside this book isn’t as relevant to my project as some of the other media I have analysed in this post, but has still given me some insight on the video game industry nonetheless. It features various inside notes on how the team behind the game came together, what their management looked like and generally how work behind the scenes operated. One of my favourite quotes featured in the book comes from Masachika Kawata on his explanation of a dev team’s management positions: “If a game isn’t good, it’s the directors fault. If it isn’t completed on time, it’s the project manager’s fault. If it doesn’t sell, it’s the producer’s fault. And ultimately, all responsibility falls on the owner,” (p.26).
  • I mentioned in my notes on Extra Credits – The Three Pillars of Video Game Writing, that the narrative for our game will feature worldbuilding elements. In order to get a better understanding of how to integrate this into my writing, I have been rereading Brandon Sanderson’s, The Stormlight Archive (2010- present) in my free time as I feel it is a great example of world building done right in the fantasy/dark fantasy genre. Like the rest of the books on this list, I have not analysed them as thoroughly as the rest of my research but I feel I have still benefited from revisiting them.

Online Videos

Even after starting my production, I am still finding onlines videos that contain helpful knowledge and insight on writing for video games and storytelling as a whole. Most recently, I have been watching clips of Alan Moore’s BBC Maestro course on storytelling that, while short, have once again been useful in gaining a better understanding of different aspects of writing. 

Other Resources

Though the setting of our game is a darkly fantastical one, I am still regularly looking up articles on real world history so that I can more accurately represent the elements that are inspired by reality . Such as Victorian architecture, royal hierarchies and older technology. While the representations of these things are, of course, still skewered when compared to their real world counterparts, I felt that getting a proper understanding of them was necessary when coming up with my own fictional society. (Example: Ellen Castelow [No date] The British Peerage. Available at: https://www.historic-uk.com/CultureUK/The-British-Peerage/ (Accessed: April 2022).

Bibliography

Primary:

  • Naughty Dog (2013) The Last of Us (Standard edn). Playstation 3 [Game]. San Mateo: Sony Interactive Entertainment
  • The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (2002) [Film]. Peter Jackson.dir. New Zealand: New Line Cinema
  • FromSoftware Inc. (2011) Dark Souls (Standard edn). Playstation 3 [Game]. Tokyo: BANDAI NAMCO
  • CD Projekt RED (2015) Thronebreaker: The Witcher Tales (Standard edn). Microsoft Windows [Game]. Warsaw: CD Projekt
  • Daniel Mullins Games (2021) Inscryption (Standard edn). Microsoft Windows [Game]. Austin: Devolver Digital
  • Toge Productions (2020) Coffee Talk (Standard edn). Microsoft Windows [Game]. Tangerang: Toge Productions
  • Stoker, B (1897) Dracula. Revised edn. Westminster: Penguin Classics
  • Capcom (2017) Resident Evil 7: Biohazard (Standard edn). Microsoft Windows [Game]. Osaka: Capcom
  • Brandon Sanderson (2010- Present) The Stormlight Archive. 1st edn. London: Gollancz
  • Critical Role (2015- Present) Critical role. [Online series] Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y0fP5x-O9lg (Accessed 16 March 2022)
  • BBC Maestro (2022) Alan Moore – Storytelling – BBC Maestro. [Online series] Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZwleZw2-kU8&list=PLwPsyve3eirvvM8hbRatzfEQ6uuc_jzSF (Accessed 22 April 2022)
  • Wizards of the Coast (2014- Present) Dungeons and Dragons (5th edn). [Table Top Game]. Renton: Wizards of the Coast

Secondary:

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